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Bibliotherapy This paper explores bibliotherapy offering its origin, different definitions and facets. How to use bibliotherapy is discussed along with who should use this method of teaching. A listing of books and what issues they addressed is included along with a lesson plan for using bibliotherapy teach about prejudice. Pros and cons of bibliotherapy are listed. Adults throughout the ages have viewed books as powerful tools with which to guide children's thinking, strengthen their character, shape their behavior, and, more recently, even to solve their problems (Myracle, 1995). It (Bibliotherapy) can be traced back far in history, from the days of the first libraries in Greece. (Bibliotherapy, 1982). Books started out as a way to teach children about religion and morality but has moved toward entertainment and learning as young adults have become more interested in reading. Today not only are books entertaining and full of knowledge, they are also healing. Bibliotherapy is a discussion process, guided by a facilitator, using literature as the catalyst to promote insight, normal development or rehabilitation (http://members.aol.com/LucyLu/wbibpotx.html). Bibliotherapy consists of three parts: Identification, Catharsis, and Insight. Identification occurs when students identify with characters in the book. Catharsis occurs when students become emotionally involved with the story releasing pent up emotions. Insight happens when students discover there is a solution to their problem and they are able to come up with a solution to solve their problem. In order for bibliotheraphy to be effective these three components should be conducted one after the other. Bibliotherapy provides insight and new information students can use to develop new attitudes and values. When participating in bibliotheraputic activities students are provided the opportunity to realize the are not the only one facing this type if situation. Adolescents are egocentric, and believe their thoughts and feelings are new and uncommon. The adolescent constructs a personal fable, the belief that he or she is a unique, one-of-a-kind individual, a person having singular feelings and thoughts (Lerner, 2002). There are several reasons why bibliotherapy is used. Bibliotherapeutic intervention may be undertaken for many reasons: (1) to develop an individual's self-concept; (2) to increase an individual's understanding of human behavior or motivations; (3) to foster an individual's honest self-appraisal; (4) to provide a way for a person to find interests outside of self; (5) to relieve emotional or mental pressure; (6) to show an individual that he or she is not the first or only person to encounter such a problem; (7) to show an individual that there is more than one solution to a problem; (8) to help a person discuss a problem more freely; and (9) to help an individual plan a constructive course of action to solve a problem (Abdullah, 2002; Aiex, 1993). Bibliotherapy, which can be administered by teachers, psychologist, health professionals or librarians, can be done in a group or with individuals. The role of the librarian is to suggest books to the student in need. Teachers who conduct bibliotherapy activities should use the help and knowledge of a counselor or metal health professional depending on the extent of the difficulties. When conducted in a group or with individuals students can read the material or have the material read to them by the administrators. When conducting bibliotherapy in a group the administrator should select groups carefully. No students should be left out. Groups should contains students of different skill levels which will compliment each other. Regardless of whether the practitioner chooses the individual or group approach, the basic procedures in conducting bibliotherapy are: (1) motivate the individual or individuals with introductory activities; (2) provide time for reading the material; (3) allow incubation time; (4) provide follow-up discussion time, using questions that will lead persons from literal recall of information through interpretation, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of that information; and (5) conduct evaluation and direct the individual or individuals toward closure--this involves both evaluation by the practitioner and self-evaluation by the individual (Bibliotherapy, 1982). Teachers should lead all activities involved in order to ensure understanding and/or growth. In order to ensure the effectiveness of bibliotherapy books should be age appropriate, and have an suitable literary model. The literary model or character should be realistic, believable and around the same age as the reader. Also the material chosen by the administrator should meet the needs of the student. Bibliotherapy is an approach used with students with emotional difficulties and students needing help dealing with stressful situations. Several instructional approaches are used with children experiencing emotional difficulties: contract reading, bibliotherapy and the use of book buddies (Leu and Kinzer, 2003). Books can be used to deal with the things students face everyday such as adjusting to changes, behaviors, feelings, and medical experiences. Books can also be used to deal with more serious issues such as learning or behavior problems. Students can learn to deal with new babies, moving, birth, death, and different family structures. Behaviors such as bullying, manners, selfishness, shinning, and tattling. Feelings such as jealousy, anger, and fear can be addressed. Getting over fears or anxieties about going to the doctor dentist, childhood diseases, wearing glasses, or bodily changes can also be found in books used for bibliotheraputic purposes. In bibliotherapy behaviors are improved or fears and anxiety are overcome through a character or characters modeling an accomplishment. The more closely the student identifies with the model the greater the impact on self efficacy or belief about personal competence in a particular situation (Woolfolk, 2004). In the case of bibliotherapy self efficacy or belief about personal competence is in improving a behavior or overcoming fear, stress, or anxiety. Bibliotherapy does not cure deep deep-seated psychological problems. In order for bibliotherapy to work administrators must first identify student’s needs. After the need is identified the administrators should match student with appropriate material. The material should be age appropriate, realistic, and believable. The administrator must provide an interesting anticipatory set. To find out the interest of the student or students a survey could be taken, an observation could be conducted, or an overseer could have students write a paper on their interests. To facilitate growth understanding or a change in behavior students must be allowed to consider the material presented. In order to make sure there is a understanding of the material a summary should be presented. A follow up activity should also take place to solidify the material learned. Closure is an important element of bibliotherapy, students must be assisted in accomplishing closure. Bibliotherapy material does not only addresses issues such as family structure, medical experiences, and behaviors, it also increases understanding of problems in life, social issues, and feelings. Eve Bunting (1991) wrote, “Fly Away Home“, a book about homelessness, and issues students see and some students face. The story allows readers to feel the desolation homeless people face. “Your Move” is another Eve Bunting (1998) book that tackles the issues of gangs. Bunting tells the story of a boy growing up in a single parent home who is attempted to join a gang but realizes it is not the right thing to do. “When the Whipporwill Calls” by Candice F. Ransom covers the issue of change. Cynthia Rylant writes of isolation in An Angel for Solomon Singer. This story is about a man from Indiana who moves to New York where he feels alone. Bibliotherapy can also be used to teach, and give students an understanding
of multiculturalism. In Eve Bunting’s “Cheyenne Again” (1995) she tells the
story of Native Americans. America Street: A Multicultural Anthology of Stories Bibliotherapy - Prejudice An Educator's Reference Desk Lesson Plan Author: Connie Eastburn Date: May 1994 Adopted from: A Novel Approach to Talents Grade Level(s): 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 Subject(s): Overview: Teaching children about the perils of prejudice is challenging. The book The Hundred Dresses, written about 50 years ago addresses this subject. While the faces have changed, the lessons remain. Objectives: Students will be able to: Teacher Materials: Student Materials: Activities: Along with prejudice, good character and life skills are issues that should be addressed using school curricula. Having good character consists of such actions as being kind or caring, having family pride, being respectful, being responsible, being fair, being courteous, and showing respect. These characteristic may or may not be taught in the home. Burnett and Rusnak (Callahan, 2002) state that character education in schools is stimulated by a perceived need to act to reduce students‘ antisocial behaviors and to produce more respectful and responsible citizens. Character education is in important in helping students develop principles that lead to responsible citizenship and moral actions. Students who did not learn about or lack good character are are communities or nation in the future. Investing in character education is investing in America. When using bibiliotherapy to teach character education educators can use books required by state or federal standards by picking out a passage, paragraph or pages which demonstrates the character they are trying to teach. Character education can be taught in language art class, or any other class. Social studies teachers can pull out a historical figure from the text and use his or her life as a model of the character being taught. Math teachers can use mathematicians to model character. This can also be done in science class using famous scientists. In geography the character of a country or a community can be studied. Physical education teachers can use sports figures to educate students on the value of character. The list of books below on responsibility are offered at the following
website: (http://powayusd.sdcoe.k12.ca.us/pusdmbms/ASB/ASB/6%20pillars/responsibility.htm)
Summer of the Swans by Byars, B. (Teen Fiction) If Wishes Were Horses by Doty, J (Teen Fiction) Kidnapping of Mister Huey by Eige, L. (Teen Fiction) Move Over, Beethoven by First, J. (Teen Fiction) How I Put My Mother Through College by Gerson, C. (Teen Fiction) Alan and the Animal Kingdom by Holland, I. (Teen Fiction) If You Had to Choose, What Would You Do? by Humphrey, S. (Teen Fiction) It's Up to You...What Do You Do? by Humphrey, S. (Teen Fiction) W illiam: A Novel by Hunt, I. (Teen Fiction)Karen and Vicki by McHugh, E. (Teen Fiction.) Karen’s Sister by McHugh, E. (Teen Fiction) Raising a Mother Isn’t Easy by McHugh, E. (Teen Fiction) Downwind by Moeri, L. (Teen Fiction) Young Landlords by Myers, W. (Teen Fiction) Father Figure: A Novel by Peck, R. (Teen Fiction) Welcome Home, Jellybean by Shyer, M. (Teen Fiction) Sign of the Beaver by Speare, E. (Teen Fiction) The following lists offers books on trustworthiness and honest: In Our House, Scott Is My Brother by Adler, C. (Teen Fiction) Bad Times of Irma Baumlein by Brink, C. (Teen Fiction) My Brother Sam is Dead by Collier, J. (Teen Fiction) Flight of the Sparrow by Cunningham, J. (Teen Fiction) Summer of My German Soldier by Greene, B. (Teen Fiction) Uphill All the Way by Hall, L. (Teen Fiction) Rifles for Watie by Keith, H. (Teen Fiction) Gentlehands by Kerr, M. (Teen Fiction) Is that You, Miss Blue? by Kerr, M. (Teen Fiction) Dancing Meteorite by Mason, A. (Teen Fiction) Old Ramon by Schaefer, J. (Teen Fiction) No matter what issues is covered it is important in bibliotherapy to monitor and guide all activities. Before undertaking bibliotherapy, however, a practitioner must remember that it is more than just the casual recommendation of a certain book to an individual--it is a deliberate course of action that requires careful planning (Bibliotherapy, 1982). The issues being presented must be pointed and discussed. Educators must make sure that the issues are understood. For example when teaching about the issue of respect a teacher must help students define respect, give examples of respect, and make sure that the concept of respect is comprehended. Teachers can make sure comprehension is achieved by finding out what students know about the issue being taught and building on that knowledge. Comprehension may also be achieve by finding out about prior knowledge and correcting any misconceptions.In order to meet the needs of students through bibliotherapy educators must discover the needs of their students. This can be done through observation, surveys, or by knowledge of the age being targeted. Needs can be as simple as character issues, honesty, or trustworthiness, or as serious as mood disorders, such as depression,. If the problem or need is serious teachers should consult with a mental health professional. Bibliotherapy refers to the use of literature as an aid to therapy, particularly for people suffering from psychological trauma or mental illness (Oxlade, Robert). Not all teachers, librarians, or other administrators of bibliotherapy are qualified to conduct this activity. Those who are interested, however, should possess personal stability; a genuine interest in working with others; and the ability to empathize with others without moralizing, threatening, or commanding (Bibliotherapy, 1982). If bibliotherapy is conducted incorrectly it will not be effective, and may further harm the students involved. Adults throughout the ages have viewed books as powerful tools with which to guide children's thinking, strengthen their character, shape their behavior, and, more recently, even to solve their problems (Myracle, 1995). It (Bibliotherapy) can be traced back far in history, from the days of the first libraries in Greece. (Bibliotherapy, 1982). Books started out as a way to teach children about religion and morality but has moved toward entertainment and learning as young adults have become more interested in reading. Today not only are books entertaining and full of knowledge, they are also healing. Abudallah, M. H. (2002). Bibliotherapy. ERIC Digest. Retrieved on September 10, 2003 from http://www.indiana.edu/~eric_rec/ieo/digests/d177.html Aiex, N. K. (1993). Bibliotherapy. ERIC Digest. Retrieved on September 10, 2003 from http://www.indiana.edu/~eric_rec/ieo/digests/d82.html Bibliotherapy. Fact Sheet (1982). Urbana, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills. ED 234 338 Callahan, Joseph F. (2002). Teaching Middle and Secondary School. Prentice Hall. Finders, Margaret J. and Hynds, Susan (2003). Literacy Lessons. Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, NJ. Lerner, Richard M. (2002). Adolescence: development, diversity, context, and application. Pearson Education Inc. Upper Saddle River: NJ. Leu, Donald J. and Kinzer, Charles K. (2003) Teaching Literacy K-8 5th ed. Prentice Hall. Myracle, (1995). Bibliotherapy. Retrieved on April 10th, 2005 from http://filebox.vt.edu/t/tmicheal/finalresearch.doc. Oxlade, Robert (Department of Psychiatry, Queen's University). What is Bibliotherapy? Retrieved on April 8, 2005 from http://www.laurentian.ca/abal/biblio.htm Pardeck, J. T. (1993). Literature and adoptive children with disabilities. Early Child Development and Care, 91, 33-39. Woolfolk, Anita (2004). Educational Psychology 9th ed. Pearson Education, Inc.: Boston. http://powayusd.sdcoe.k12.ca.us/pusdmbms/ASB/ASB/6%20pillars/responsibility.htm http://members.aol.com/LucyLu/wbibpotx.html
Performance assessment Angela Henry Dr. Burger Educational Psychology
Performance assessment In order to find out how well students are learning material presented to them and how effective teachers are presenting material, assessment methods must be used. One important reason that teachers assess is to determine an individual student’s weaknesses and strengths (Popham, 2005). Through the use of assessment educators are able to monitor student progress toward educational objectives set by state or federal standards, and those set by the educators themselves. Monitoring student progress informs teachers of how effective their teaching is, and lets them know what changes they need to make in order to help students be more successful in their classroom. Angelo (1999) points out in “Doing Assessment as if Learning Matters Most” that "If learning really matters most, then our assessment practices should help students develop the skills, dispositions, and knowledge needed to: Assessment is a broader descriptor of the kinds of educational measuring that teachers do-a descriptor that while certainly including traditional paper-and-pencil tests, covers many more kinds of measurement procedures (Popham, 2005). There are many different methods of assessment available to teachers. Teacher must be aware of these methods and how and when they are best implemented. One type of assessment can not be used for all projects, tasks, or assignments. Popham (2005) highlights three reasons for teachers to know about assessment: Along with the above reasons for assessment educators must keep in mind the seven assumptions classroom assessment are based on: (Angelo and Cross, 2005) When deciding on which method of assessment to use and how best to implement that method. The above assumptions and reason for assessment should also be considered along with time constraints, space and material available. Selecting the most effective method of assessment that best fit’s the educator, the class being assessed, and the assignment must be done carefully to ensure the success of both students and teachers. This paper will explore one type of assessment, performance assessment. Performance assessment will be considered as a classroom evaluation method. Performance assessment will be presented as an effective assessment process which measures students’ performances on real life, authentic tasks setting up criteria which guide students through the process of completing those tasks. Evidence will be presented that shows performance assessment, also called direct assessment or alternative assessment, is an alternative to traditional methods of assessment which takes students away from memorization and fill in the blank type activities. Points will be made showing performance assessment evaluates activities which allow students authentic learning experiences, and take in and own their learning experiences. This paper will begin by answering the following questions, “What is assessment, what it who are its audience and what is its purposes?”. After answering these questions performance assessment will be described. Along with a definition, basic steps in designing an integrated performance-base assessment system will be provided. Guidelines for teachers interested in implementing this method of assessment will follow. Next different methods of performance assessment and how they can be implemented will be covered. The advantages and disadvantages of both performance tasks and performance assessment will also be presented. This paper will conclude with evidence supporting the need for both performance assessment and performance assessment tasks. Assessment is a continuous, ongoing process that involves examining and observing children’s behaviors, listening to their ideas, and developing questions to promote conceptual understanding (Badders, William, http://www.eduplace.com). Student assessment is essential not only to examine the process of student learning, but also to provide information to teachers, students, parents, administrators, school support personnel, policy makers, and, or community members about student learning. Assessment may take place in different forms, for these different purposes. Assessment could be used to: Assessments could be used to evaluate teacher effectiveness by providing information on what the students comprehend. By using assessment an educator is able to recognize if their students have learned what they planned for them to learn. Educators can document student growth by frequently assessing student performances and assessing students on the same or similar tasks. Frequent assessments and assessing similar tasks, or the same tasks will allow teachers to see the changes in thinking and comprehension. Assessments let teachers know students exposure to the material; what experiences students have gained by coming in contact with the information presented. In addition assessments show student’s knowledge of and skills gained through being involved in or experiencing material over a period of time. Seeing what students have learned by using assessments can provide educators with information on the effectiveness of their teaching. Finding out what works through use of assessment can help teachers adapt their teaching strategies. If the desired outcome is not obtained by students a teacher must change his or her way of presenting the material. Assessments are not only carried out to monitor students, but also for teachers to monitor their own effectiveness. Assessments tell teachers what works and what does not work. Having documentation of those strategies that are effective will aid teachers and administrators in developing successful educational programs. Assessments provide students with information on their progress. Assessments let students know what they should continue to work on and what they have successfully mastered. Comments from teachers on performance give students direction., Assessments guide students toward their goals (class goals, goals for what grades they wish to achieve). Assessment is a means of communication between students and teachers. Students communicate their knowledge by answering test questions, completing projects, writing essays, or performing, or not performing whatever task is assigned them. Students also communicate to teachers what teaching strategies are effective or non effective. Teachers communicate back to students with grades, comments, and other types of evaluative methods, or changes in how they implement the lesson plan. No matter what the purpose or audience assessment is a major part of the educational process. Educators must be aware of effective methods of assessment, how they work, and how best to implement them. Taylor (1999) and Delpit (1995) propose “when designing an assessment system the needs, interests, abilities, disabilities, socioeconomic backgrounds, personalities, languages, and learning styles of students must be taken into consideration” (Taylor, 2003). If these factors are not taken into consideration the needs of the students will not be met, and the educational curriculum will not be successful. Performance assessment evaluates student’s individual performances using critical thinking, and creativity. Performance assessment is the direct, systematic observation of an actual student performance and the rating of that performance according to previously established performance criteria (http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/assment/as8lk5.htm). Performance or authentic assessments assess student performance on authentic or meaningful, real life task. The tasks evaluated by performance assessment are tasks that require students to think outside the classroom. The skills acquired from performance authentic tasks can be used in every day life. Woolfolk (2004) suggests the use of fractions to enlarge or reduce recipes as a sample performance task. Performance assessment tasks and performance assessment gives students an individualized, authentic learning experience, which allows them to be themselves, and express themselves in a productive manner. Creating and using performance-based assessments rather than relying on textbook test empowers teachers and students to undertake genuine learning (http://www.drdan.org/Handout%204.htm). If you ask students to memorize definitions they will never use, to learn the material only because it is on a test, or to repeat work they already understand, then there can be little motivation to learn (Woolfolk, 2004). Assessments are authentic when they have meaning in themselves-when the learning they measure has value beyond the classroom and is meaningful to the learner (Kerka, www.cete.org). Performance assessments measure student performance on task that require analytical thinking and independent learning. Teacher limit their involvement in helping students complete performance assessment tasks. Criteria are provided to students to assist them in task completion, and students are taught before hand the critical skills needed to accomplish the assigned task. The most common performance assessments use skills that are required by most school districts: reading, writing, and speaking. Educators are also using cognitive, psychomotor, and affective skills to assess student performance. Custer, Lazar, Bean, Reif, Reidner, and Boston suggest the following as some examples of performance assessment tasks that can be evaluated by performance assessment: Chicago Public Schools gives more detailed examples of performance assessment tasks such as writing a newspaper article, using evidence to solve a mystery, devising a game, and drawing a picture that illustrates what’s described in a story or article (http://intranet.cps.k12.il.us/Assessments/Ideas_and_Rubrics). Performance assessment tasks must evoke critical thinking and capture students interest. When choosing a task to evaluate teachers must ask themselves several question to ensure the task is effective, reliable, valid, and fair. Will students at the grade level being taught have the back ground knowledge and experience to complete the task? How can the educator get his/her students ready for the task they want them to perform? Is the task authentic? Does the task reflect what real citizens, consumers, or employees might actually do (www.aea267.k12.la.us). What prior information is needed for students to complete the task? What is needed for the task, and will the educator provide the material or will students be asked to bring in the material required to complete the assignment? Will students compare, classify, contrast, problem solve, construct, or analyze in order to complete the assigned task? Who will be the students’ audience, teacher, peers, the public? What are the state or national standards that students must meet? No matter what the assigned task, in order for performance assessment tasks and performance assessments to be effective the purpose of the task, expectations, and criteria should be clearly laid out. It should be clear that authentic assessments must be carefully designed and evaluation criteria rigorously selected (Kerka, www.cete.org). A performance assessment consists of two parts, a task and a set of scoring criteria or rubric (http://intranet.cps.k12.il.us/Assessments/Ideas_and_Rubrics). Performance criteria are essential to successful performance assessment, and broad areas such as using an instrument, participating in a sport, and obeying school rules must be broken down in specific skills before they can be successfully assessed (Taylor, 2003). Criteria should be clearly stated, and in a language students can understand. Educators should go over criteria with students and make sure all students involved have an understanding. Criterion must be available to students through out the assigned task. Rubrics are commonly used to lay out performance evaluation criteria for performance assessment tasks. Rubrics may be defined as clear set of criteria used to assist teachers and pupils to determine values of an instructional activity (Taylor, 2003). Teachers make available a rating scale that students can follow to reach their goals. Rubrics tell students how their performances will be rated by providing a set of standards. This rating system also provides others concerned with student’s grades the reasoning behind scores received on assigned tasks. Rubrics should set out standards for success. Educators can create a rubric on their own or use such programs as rubistar, or use rubrics already available. Rubrics can also be built using the web site http://landmark-project.com/classweb/tools/rubric_builder.php. This site allow educators to build a rubric from scratch setting their own objectives and performance indicators. Rubrics not only set guidelines and goals for students, they can be used to answer any questions students, administrators, or parents have about scores received on tasks. There are many advantages to using performance assessment for evaluating students learning and teacher’s teaching. Performance assessment tests students on critical thinking tasks such as comparing, analyzing, evaluating, and classifying. Using performance assessment gives students meaning and purpose to their learning. Students being evaluated using the performance assessment method understand how their learning relates to their lives. Performance assessment takes away test anxiety for those who are not good test takers. Several skills can be tested using one performance assessment task. Performance assessments allow students not only to use and apply their knowledge, but to perform and share their feelings and opinions about the subject matter. Along with the advantages of performance assessment comes the disadvantages. Creating a performance assessment can be overwhelming. Teachers must ask themselves such questions as what will the setting be, what student’s roles will be, who will be the audience (peers, public, teacher), and what resources or people outside the school would add value to the project. Grading performance assessment tasks can be time consuming. These tasks can not be run through a machine, or matched against a sheet of correct answers. Performance assessment can bring bias into the evaluation process. There is not a correct or incorrect answer, teachers must use their best judgment to evaluate material. The materials needed to complete the task may not be found in the classroom, teachers may have to ask students to bring in supplies, or buy the supplies needed themselves. Also teacher may need to teach students the critical thinking skills needed to complete the assigned task. Although performance assessment can be costly and time consuming it can also be beneficial. Performance assessment bring students thinking and learning to a higher level. Completing performance assessment task can help students take responsibility for their learning and be part of the learning process. Authentic assessment (also called alternative or performance based assessment) captures actual student performance, encourages students to reflect on their own work and is integrated into the student’s whole learning process (Sadker and Sadker, 2005). Before teachers decide how he/she will assess his/her students there are certain points that should be known about the assessment process. Assessments are formative, or ungraded evaluations used during or before instruction. Teachers are not to judge students work but give them feedback about there learning. Assessment is nonjudgmental in the sense that it does not put emphasis on the learner but it focuses on learning. In order to tell how well students are learning material presented to them and how effective teachers are presenting material to students assessment methods must be used. One important reason that teachers assess is to determine an individual student’s weaknesses and strengths (Popham, 2005). Through the use of assessment educators are able to monitor student progress toward educational objectives set by state or federal standards, and those set by themselves. Monitoring student progress informs teachers of how effective their teaching is, and lets them know what changes they need to make in order to help students be more successful in their classroom.
Bibliography Angelo, T. (May 1999). "Doing Assessment as if Learning Matters Most." AAHE Bulletin. Retrieved March 22, 2005 from http://www.aahebulletin.com/public/archive/angelomay99.asp. “Assessments.“ Retrieved March 20th, 2005 from http://intranet.cps.k12.il.us/Assessments/Ideas_and_Rubrics “Assessment Alternatives.” Retrieved March 21, 2005 from http://www.nwrel.org/nwedu/fall_96/article9.htmlhttp://www.nwrel.org/nwedu/fall_96/ar ticle9.html Badders, William. “Assessment”. Retrieved March 16th from http://www.eduplace.com. Finder, Margret J. and Hynds, Susan (2003). Literacy Lessons: Teaching and Learning With Middle School Students. New Jersey: Person Education, Inc. Kerka, Sandra. Retrieved from www.cete.org. Mandernach, Jean. “Incorporating and Documenting Effective Assessment.” Retrieved March 22, 2005 from http://captain.park.edu/facultydevelopment/effective_assessment.htm “Performance Assessment.” Retrieved March 20th, 2005 from http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/assment/as8lk5.htm “Writing Performance Assessment Tasks: An Online Guide”. Retreived March 17th
from http://www.aea267.k12.ia.us/cia/framework/tasks/writing/index.html. Popham, W.J. (2005). Classroom Assessment: What Teachers Need to Know. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. “Rubric Builder.“ Retrieved March 19th, 2005 from http://landmark- project.com/classweb/tools/rubric_builder.php Sadker, Myra and Sadker, David (2005). Teachers, Schools, and Society. New York: McGraw- Hill. Taylor, George R. (2003). Informal Classroom Assessment Strategies for Teachers. Lanham: Scarecrow Press, Inc. “Understanding Performance-Based Assessment” (2003). Retrieved March 19th from http://www.drdan.org/Handout%204.htm. Woolfolk, Anita (2004). Educational Psychology. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. Assessment Alternatives Performance assessments can be designed to use a wide range of tasks and strategies. Here are some examples:
SOURCE: The Status of State Student Assessment Programs in the United States. Council of Chief State School Officers/North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, June 1995
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